The history of European archives or the development of the European archival profession can only be discussed superficially as single entities. Nevertheless, there is a tendency recently to harmonize European archival legislation and practices, if not to unify them. The author discusses the genesis and history of the evolution of archival theory and practice in the major European countries through the creation of the great archival repositories, the birth of archival science, and the development of modern archives. He ends the article with an overview of current archival evolution in Europe and suggests the areas in which archival harmonization is likely to be most successful.

The vast increase in the production of documents during and after World War I led to a reconsideration of the role of the archivist in the appraisal of records. This reconsideration took various and quite opposite directions, in particular among English and German archivists. The German archivist has always put preservation before destruction; the English archivist has wished to defer to the office of origin for decisions on records retention. In addition to these two national variations, the author expands his review to include the Norwegian, eastern European, and United States archival contexts. He probes the variety of archival theories and practices of these countries, and concludes with observations on the further development of appraisal criteria in light of automation, market value theory, and democratization in eastern Europe.

The political and economic integration of the twelve countries which constitute the European Community will mandate the harmonization of archival practice within the community. The national archivists of the twelve countries are preparing archival policy to be discussed by the European Council of Ministers. High on this agenda will be the harmonization of legislation and practice concerning access. Harmonization is also sought in appraisal policies, in standards for buildings and equipment, in the adaptation of new technologies, in copyright protection, and in procedures for the lending of documents. Such harmonization among national archives would hopefully match efforts to establish a coherent archival policy for the records of European Community institutions. The author does not advocate a total archival integration but does favor a structure which would allow for the free communication between archival systems and which would foster equal access and care for European archives.

In Scandinavia, a complex set of historical factors has contributed to the state's virtual monopoly on institutionalized archives until fairly recently. The authors reflect upon this tradition as they consider the more recent development of state and local archives in Denmark. Within the last 150 years, voluntary associations have supported the development of local historical collections. The major changes in Denmark's administrative structure within the last twenty-five years have challenged both the state's monopoly of institutionalized, professional archives and the independence and "amateur" status of local historical collections. The authors anticipate an analogous disharmony at the level of the records of the European Community, since there will be a struggle to adapt the existing European archives structure to the demands of new forms of supranational administration.

Although it may be premature to talk about a "European" archivist, the training of European archivists is a necessary precondition for the future of increasing harmonization within Europe. Some first steps towards a common European training have been instituted during the past thirty years under the auspices of the International Council on Archives and through the efforts of individual national archives services. The author proposes a model curriculum for a common approach to archival education and discusses current cooperative efforts in archival education within Europe.

National traditions which determine the nature of archives and archival work (structuurbeginsel) would prevent the merging of the existing training institutions in Europe into a uniform training scheme. But a European Archives Institute with the primary task of undertaking technical and theoretical studies in the archival field would fill a gap, since most European countries lack appropriate research centers on archives. Experienced mid-career archivists could be detached to the Institute to undertake research on issues of common interest. Short term training courses on common elements and comparative studies could lead to the development of a truly European archival science.

The turning point (Wende) that began in the fall of 1989 and which led to the reunification of Germany is reflected in sweeping changes in German archival structures, changes which occurred at such an accelerated pace that their impact cannot be fully realized as yet. The author gives a summary of the development of national archives in the Federal Republic of Germany and in the German Democratic Republic from the end of World War II to reunification on October 3, 1990. From May to October of 1990 plans were made for the reunification of archival structures. The author describes the cooperative work of archivists in East and West Germany and the resulting federal and state (Länder) archival structures.

The author discusses the effects of the democratization of 1988/89 in Eastern Middle Europe upon archival access and on the modification of laws regulating archival jurisdictions. The rule of the Communist Party after 1945 created severe limitations on access to the state archival fond for both foreigners and citizens of Eastern Middle European countries. Access was limited by a catalogue of prohibited research topics, by undetermined opening dates, by the exemption of certain fonds from existing archives legislation, by the ability of records creating bureaucracies to set their own access rules, and by national isolation. With democratization, archival administrations are instituting legislation to determine access dates, to regulate classification of documents, to guarantee public access and the protection of individual rights and privacy, and to standardize research rules. The problem of documenting re-privatized businesses is being handled in differing ways throughout the region.

This article traces changes in Soviet-area archives through 1991. Despite increasing evidence of glastnost' in access to archives and to their internal finding aids, the failure of perestroika under Glavarkhiv has left a legacy of problems. The article discusses archival reform during the last months of Glavarkhiv's administration of state archives throughout the Soviet Union and the rise to pre-eminence of the Russian archival service, Roskomarkhiv. Roskomarkhiv has taken over the nationalized Communist Party archives, KGB archives, and most all-union archives on Russian territory. Russia and other republics are drafting archival laws which will open new claims and potential areas of conflict regarding their archival patrimony and jurisdiction over records. At the same time, questions have been opened anew about jurisdiction over Russian records abroad, records captured by the Soviet Union during World War II, and access to Soviet World War II prison-camp records. The article ends by describing the legacy of problems which effect the research use of records and summarizes foreign collaborative assistance.

The Russian State University for the Humanities was founded on March 23, 1991. The Moscow State Historico-Archival Institute (MGIAI), the major archival training school for the Soviet Union, has been incorporated as the founding department of the new university. Iurii Afanas'ev, head of the MGIAI, is president of the new university, which is dedicated to the reform of the educational system in Russia. The university will be governed by an association of state, non-governmental, and international institutions. The author traces the erosion of standards for the study of the humanities after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution and explains the leadership role of MGIAI in the reform or counter-revolution which began under glasnost' and perestroika. New cooperative research projects and funding through fee-for-service educational programs for institutions, organizations, and firms are the first innovations of the new university.

With the current political transitions in Europe, the relocation of national, regional, and ethnic archives is once again a timely issue. The author provides a historical analysis of the development in Europe of the archival principles of provenance and pertinence, as they have been challenged and used over the centuries for political gain in the displacement and reclaiming of records. In anticipation of Europe moving beyond the archival standstill of the après-guerre, the author foresees both the inevitable problems and the necessary preconditions for a replevin program of a multinational magnitude.

Louisiana was a Spanish colony from 1762 to 1803. The author traces the short history of Spanish Louisiana and the archival legacy of its colonial records. Through two centuries, administrators, historians, and archivists have undertaken copying, reorganization, and reformatting projects in an effort to preserve the records and to provide increased access. A massive microfilming collaboration by the Spanish National Archives and several American institutions, including Loyola University of New Orleans, Louisiana State University, and the Historic New Orleans Collection, has just been completed. This thirty-year endeavor achieved the ultimate preservation of the records and increased international access to these dispersed documents. In the process, the project influenced the archival policy of the archives of Spain, the former parent country.

The development and growth of new information technologies and their application to nearly all aspects of society are challenging European archives. New technologies are having an impact on several aspects of archival theory and practice through the introduction of records in new media into archives and through the use of information technologies in the management and description of archival records. Although various archives are reacting to this situation by developing partial applications, there is a need to develop integrated information systems and general automation plans for the archives. The authors discuss various partial and general applications and describe the comprehensive computerization of the Archivo General de Indias at greater length.

During the past several years, as archivists worldwide have begun to struggle with the problems of managing electronic records, two traditions of archival theory and organizational practice which remain very strong in Europe have become prominent features of the solutions being developed there. In this paper these theoretical influences on archival practice are explored and the way in which they are shaping European approaches to the challenges of electronic records is examined. The significance of European theory and practice for electronic records management in America is then considered.

The author is director of the University of Michigan Vatican Archives Project. This project, which created a computer-based access system for the Vatican Archives, represents the first attempt to apply the USMARC AMC format to a major European archive. User accessibility was the ultimate goal of the project. The database, which was built upon fundamental archival principles, includes two elements: a complete listing of all Vatican agencies over time with a historical description of the agency emphasizing its functions; and a complete set of record series descriptions. The project raised several larger issues regarding the application of new technology and the possibilities of scholarly collaboration in the design of archival access systems.

The USMARC AMC was used to create a computerized access system for the Vatican archives in a collaborative effort between Vatican personnel and American scholars and archivists. The two initial goals of the Vatican Archives Project were to create and enter series level descriptions for all holdings in the Archivio Segreto Vaticano (ASV) and to research, compile, and enter agency histories for all central offices of the Catholic Church. The author discusses the challenge posed by the application of the MARC AMC format to ASV records, especially that posed by the seeming limitations of fields Finding Aids Note (555), Linking Entry Complexity Note (580), and Genre/Form Heading (655). The need to include interpretive analyses in addition to conventional objective description is also discussed, as well as concerns and comments on the international exchange of archival data.